Q235A

Also known as A3 steel, Q235A is a common carbon steel with a carbon content below 0.22%. The “Q” stands for yield strength, “235” indicates a yield strength of 235 MPa, and “A” denotes its quality grade. It offers decent strength, good ductility, and toughness, capable of withstanding tensile, compressive, and bending loads. Q235A also has excellent weldability, minimizing defects like pores or cracks, and performs well in machining, cold bending, and hot bending.

45# Steel

This medium-carbon steel, with a carbon content of 0.42–0.50%, is equivalent to Japan’s JIS S45C standard. Widely used in non-standard designs, 45# steel offers excellent overall performance after tempering. It’s commonly used for gears, shafts, keys, and pins. For higher surface hardness, high-frequency quenching can be applied after tempering, achieving approximately 30 HRC after tempering and up to 45 HRC after quenching, meeting most operational requirements.

40Cr

When 45# steel’s properties fall short, 40Cr is a suitable alternative. This high-quality carbon structural steel, with 0.4% carbon and chromium alloying, significantly enhances performance after heat treatment. It achieves a hardness of about 35 HRC after tempering and nearly 60 HRC after high-frequency quenching, making it ideal for high-performance gears and shafts.

Rostfreier Stahl 304

Containing 18% chromium and 8% nickel, also known as 18/8 stainless steel, 304 is non-magnetic in its annealed state and cannot be hardened through heat treatment. Cold working (e.g., stamping, stretching, bending, or rolling) may induce weak magnetism due to partial austenite-to-martensite transformation. It offers good resistance to atmospheric corrosion and oxidation.

Stainless Steel 316

An upgrade over 304, 316 stainless steel contains 18% chromium, 10% nickel (18/10), and added molybdenum for enhanced corrosion resistance, especially in harsh environments. It offers excellent work-hardening properties, high-temperature strength, and a glossy finish in cold-rolled products. It remains non-magnetic in its solution-treated state but is more expensive than 304.

CR12 Mold Steel

A high-carbon, high-chromium ledeburite steel, CR12 is a widely used cold-work mold steel. It offers good hardenability, wear resistance, and hot workability, with well-distributed carbides in the steel. It’s suitable for complex, heavy-duty cold-work molds.

SKD11

A high-carbon, high-chromium alloy tool steel, SKD11 offers excellent hardenability with minimal quenching distortion. After spheroidizing annealing, it provides good machinability, high hardness, wear resistance, and toughness, making it resistant to cracking.

65Mn

A high-manganese carbon spring steel, 65Mn has a carbon content of about 0.65% and manganese content of 0.9–1.2%. Manganese enhances hardenability, and its surface decarbonization is less pronounced than silicon steel. After heat treatment, it outperforms standard carbon steel but is prone to overheating sensitivity and temper brittleness.

Aluminum Alloy 6061

A heat-treatable alloy, 6061 offers good formability, weldability, and machinability while maintaining moderate strength post-annealing. Its dense, defect-free structure makes it easy to polish and coat, making it the top choice for anodizing among aluminum alloys.

Aluminum Alloy 7075

Known for high strength and good plasticity after solution treatment, 7075 excels in heat treatment and low-temperature strength. It’s widely used in aerospace, often called aviation aluminum, but has poor weldability and a tendency for stress corrosion cracking.

Brass, Copper, and Bronze

Brass: A copper-zinc alloy with strong wear resistance. H62 brass offers good mechanical properties, decent hot and cold plasticity, machinability, and weldability, but is prone to corrosion cracking. H65 provides high strength and plasticity, suitable for cold and hot pressure processing, though it may also crack under corrosion.

Copper: Pure copper has lower stiffness and hardness than brass but superior thermal and electrical conductivity, ideal for applications like laser welding tips requiring high conductivity.

Bronze: Alloyed with tin or lead, bronze offers good castability, wear resistance, and chemical stability, and is harder than pure iron.

Beryllium Bronze: Contains 1.7–2.5% beryllium plus small amounts of nickel and chromium. It boasts high strength, hardness, thermal/electrical conductivity, wear resistance, and corrosion resistance, but is costly.

PTFE (Teflon)

Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), commonly known as Teflon, is a high-performance polymer with a wide temperature range (-180°C to 260°C) and an extremely low friction coefficient. One of the most corrosion-resistant materials, it resists all organic solvents but is soft, prone to deformation, and unsuitable for high-precision parts. It’s often used for wear-resistant components.

Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)

PVC is a versatile plastic with good chemical resistance, weatherability, and electrical insulation at a low cost. It’s widely used in pipes, cable insulation, construction, and packaging. Rigid PVC offers high strength, while soft PVC is flexible, but both have poor high-temperature resistance (up to 80°C) and release harmful gases when burned.

Nylon (PA, Polyamide)

Nylon is a high-strength, tough engineering plastic with excellent wear resistance, self-lubrication, and resistance to oil and chemicals. It’s used in gears, bearings, ropes, and textiles. However, its high water absorption affects dimensional stability and electrical properties, and it has moderate heat resistance (150–200°C). Common types include PA6 and PA66.

Polyurethane (PU)

A versatile polymer, polyurethane can be made into elastomers, foams, or coatings. It offers excellent elasticity, wear resistance, oil resistance, and a wide hardness range (from soft rubber to hard plastic). It’s used in tires, seals, cushions, and hoses but has limited high-temperature resistance (up to 120°C) and poor resistance to strong acids and alkalis.

ABS

ABS is a general-purpose engineering plastic combining high strength, toughness, and good surface finish. It’s easy to process and plate, making it ideal for automotive parts, appliance housings, and toys like LEGO bricks. It has good impact resistance but limited heat resistance (up to 100°C) and poor resistance to strong acids, alkalis, and UV light.

Polycarbonate (PC)

Polycarbonate is a highly transparent, impact-resistant engineering plastic with good heat resistance (120–140°C), electrical insulation, and dimensional stability. It’s used in bulletproof glass, optical lenses, safety helmets, and electronics housings. However, it has low surface hardness, is prone to scratches, and has moderate chemical resistance.

Polypropylene (PP)

Polypropylene is a lightweight, cost-effective plastic with good chemical and fatigue resistance, commonly used in food containers, automotive parts, fibers, and pipes. It offers decent heat resistance (100–140°C) but becomes brittle at low temperatures and has moderate impact resistance and low surface hardness.

Polyetheretherketone (PEEK)

PEEK is a high-performance engineering plastic with exceptional heat resistance (up to 250°C continuous use), mechanical strength, chemical resistance, and radiation resistance. It’s used in aerospace, medical implants, and precision mechanical parts but is expensive and difficult to process.

Acrylic (PMMA)

Acrylic, or polymethyl methacrylate, is a highly transparent plastic with moderate hardness, good surface gloss, and strong weatherability. It’s used in optical lenses, billboards, lampshades, and display cases. It has poor impact resistance, is prone to breaking, and has limited heat (up to 90°C) and chemical resistance but is easy to cut and bond.

über SogaWorks

SogaWorks is an all-in-one online platform for custom mechanical parts, connecting over 1,000 top-tier factories to serve startups and major companies. We offer flexible manufacturing solutions for rapid prototyping, small-volume testing, and large-scale production with services like?CNC machining, 3D printing, urethane casting, and injection molding. Surface finishes include anodizing, sand blasting and phosphating. With our AI-powered quoting engine, SogaWorks can deliver quotes in 5 seconds, match the best capacity, and track every step. This cuts delivery times and boosts product quality.

Common Materials in Non-standard Custom Manufaturing最先出現(xiàn)在SogaWorks。

Properties of PEEK

PEEK is an aromatic, crystalline thermoplastic polymer with a glass transition temperature of 143°C and a melting point of 334°C. It offers high mechanical strength, excellent heat resistance, impact resistance, flame retardancy, resistance to acids and alkalis, hydrolysis resistance, wear resistance, fatigue resistance, radiation resistance, and outstanding electrical properties. PEEK has the best radiation resistance among all plastics, a high oxygen index, low smoke emission during combustion, and is non-toxic. In many cases, it can effectively replace metals, alloys, ceramics, and other materials.

Mechanische Eigenschaften

PEEK has excellent creep resistance and fatigue resistance. Glass-fiber-reinforced and carbon-fiber-reinforced PEEK grades offer higher strength and modulus compared to unreinforced grades, though strength and modulus decrease noticeably above the glass transition temperature. Among crystalline polymers, PEEK has a high melting point and glass transition temperature, maintaining significant strength and modulus even above 200°C. Additionally, PEEK demonstrates low friction coefficients and wear rates across a wide temperature range and can withstand repeated high loads.

Heat Resistance

PEEK boasts outstanding heat resistance, with a long-term use temperature of up to 240°C. Thermogravimetric analysis shows no weight loss at 400°C, 2.5% weight loss at 500°C, and 59% weight loss at 600°C.

Both unreinforced and glass- or carbon-fiber-reinforced PEEK maintain tensile strength after 1,000 hours of thermal aging. For PEEK-coated wires, heat aging resistance data indicates a service life exceeding 6,000 hours at 220°C.

This makes PEEK a top choice for applications in thermoforming, oilfield development, and aerospace environments requiring high-temperature performance.

Hot Water and Steam Resistance

One of PEEK’s standout features is its resistance to hot water and steam. After 800 hours of immersion in 80°C hot water, its tensile strength and elongation at break remain virtually unchanged. In 200°C steam, PEEK maintains its tensile strength and appearance, allowing long-term use in steam environments. Among all engineering plastics, PEEK has the highest steam resistance.

Elektrische Eigenschaften

PEEK resin has a volume resistivity of 10^16 Ω·cm and low dielectric loss tangent at high frequencies. It retains excellent electrical insulation properties under harsh conditions, including high temperatures, high pressure, and high humidity.

Chemical Resistance

PEEK is resistant to nearly all chemicals except concentrated sulfuric acid and maintains excellent chemical stability at elevated temperatures. Compared to polycarbonate, modified polyphenylene ether, and polysulfone, PEEK’s chemical resistance under stress is exceptional

However, when PEEK’s crystallinity is low, immersion in certain chemicals (e.g., acetone) may cause stress cracking. This can be mitigated by annealing (e.g., at 200°C) to increase crystallinity and stress-crack resistance.

Flame Retardancy

PEEK is self-extinguishing, with 0.8–1.6 mm thick samples achieving a UL94 V-0 rating without added flame retardants. It produces minimal smoke during forced combustion and emits no toxic gases.

Radiation Resistance

PEEK has exceptional radiation resistance, particularly against gamma rays, outperforming all other engineering plastics. It begins to embrittle at gamma-ray absorption doses of (1.0–1.2) × 10^7 Gy, while beta-ray doses of (0.1–12) × 10^6 Gy have no effect.

8. Self-Lubrication

PEEK offers excellent self-lubricating properties, making it ideal for applications requiring low friction and high wear resistance. Carbon-fiber-, graphite-, or PTFE-modified PEEK grades exhibit superior wear resistance.

Biocompatibility

PEEK is non-toxic, safe, and non-allergenic, with excellent physiological compatibility. Implant-grade PEEK has undergone rigorous biocompatibility testing per ISO 10993 standards at independent testing facilities, confirming its suitability for medical applications with no adverse effects.

PEEK Processing

PEEK’s melt viscosity becomes less temperature-dependent above 380°C but is highly sensitive to shear stress and shear rate. Increasing pressure during processing effectively enhances melt flowability.

Spritzgie?en

Due to PEEK’s high melting point and melt viscosity compared to general engineering plastics, Spritzgie?en requires higher barrel temperatures, typically controlled at 350–400°C. Materials must be pre-dried, typically at 150°C for 3 hours.

As a crystalline polymer, PEEK requires sufficient crystallization during molding to achieve optimal properties. At mold temperatures of 150–160°C, injection-molded PEEK parts are opaque with high crystallinity, though the surface may be transparent with lower crystallinity. At 180°C mold temperatures, parts achieve higher crystallinity. If high mold temperatures are not feasible, post-processing (e.g., 200°C for 1 hour or 300°C for 2 minutes) can enhance crystallinity. Standard injection molding equipment is suitable, but for large, thin-walled, or complex parts, screws with high length-to-diameter ratios and short compression zones are recommended.

Extrusion Molding

PEEK can be extruded to produce films, monofilaments, rods, tubes, and coated wires. Unstretched PEEK films have low crystallinity, but stretching and heat treatment significantly improve their melting point and mechanical strength, positioning them between PET and Kapton polyimide films as Class C insulation materials. PEEK films are transparent, with light transmittance around 85%, as produced by Japan’s Sumitomo Chemical.

For large parts (diameter >6.3 cm), differences in crystallization rates between the core and surface can cause internal stresses and cracking, which can be mitigated by high-temperature annealing (e.g., 300°C for several hours).

Lamination and Electrostatic Coating

Using PEEK as a matrix resin with glass or carbon fibers (or a hybrid), high-performance composite laminates can be produced via lamination. These maintain high bending modulus retention below 300°C.

PEEK reinforced with 70% unidirectional carbon fiber offers exceptional strength and toughness, with tensile strength up to 1,540 MPa and tensile modulus up to 130 GPa at 23°C. Since no organic solvent fully dissolves PEEK, solution coating is not feasible, but electrostatic powder coating produces PEEK-coated metal products with excellent insulation, corrosion resistance, heat resistance, and water resistance.

Secondary Processing

PEEK supports secondary processing via machining, ultrasonic welding, electroplating, and sputtering. It can be bonded using epoxy, polyurethane, or silicone adhesives. Surface pretreatment with chromic acid enhances bonding strength.

Applications of PEEK

PEEK is widely used in electronics, machinery, aerospace, automotive, and other fields.

Elektronik

Applications include wire coatings, magnetic wire coatings, high-temperature terminal blocks, motor insulation materials, and integrated circuit wafer supports.

Maschinenpark

PEEK is used for gears, bearings, connectors, piston rings, centrifuge components, sensor parts, conveyor chains, and cleaning fixtures.

Luft- und Raumfahrt

PEEK is used in aircraft components such as radar parts and radomes, which offer excellent weather resistance, and engine parts that operate above 200°C. Carbon- or glass-fiber-reinforced PEEK is used for door handles, cabin panels, control sticks, and helicopter tail wings.

ICI’s APC-2, a PEEK-based composite, is ten times tougher than standard epoxy composites, replacing epoxy in space station components, aircraft wings, and other large structures. Glass-fiber-reinforced PEEK is injection-molded into rocket igniter tubes, replacing metals, reducing costs, and performing reliably in harsh launch environments.

Medizinische Ger?te

PEEK’s non-toxicity, light weight, corrosion resistance, and biocompatibility make it a promising material for biomedical prosthetics. Applications include PEEK intervertebral fusion devices, artificial bone joints (e.g., hip and knee), cranial and jaw defect repairs, spinal/lumbar repairs, dental restorations, and other bone defect repairs. Ongoing research has led to PEEK composites used in dental implants, restorations, orthodontics, and oral maxillofacial surgery.

PEEK withstands 3,000 cycles of autoclaving at 134°C, making it ideal for surgical and dental equipment requiring high sterilization standards and repeated use, thanks to its creep and hydrolysis resistance.

Energie

PEEK meets the high-performance demands of nuclear industry components. Its radiation resistance, stable chemical structure, excellent electrical properties at high temperatures, mechanical strength, chemical corrosion resistance, low moisture absorption, and hydrolysis resistance make it ideal for nuclear power applications.

PEEK is also used in high-temperature, high-pressure, and chemically corrosive environments, such as hydrogen and petroleum gas compressor rings and mesh valve plates in large petrochemical production lines, expanding oil and gas exploration capabilities.

Modified and New PEEK Grades

The most significant modified PEEK grades are glass-fiber- and carbon-fiber-reinforced versions, which enhance mechanical strength, modulus, and heat resistance. Below are recently developed PEEK grades and alloys.

Conductive PEEK

To meet the needs of semiconductor, LCD glass substrate, and integrated circuit wafer support manufacturing, which require high toughness, dimensional stability, light weight, and antistatic properties at high temperatures, Japan’s Mitsui Toatsu Chemical developed the conductive PEEK grade KNE5010. This reduces PEEK’s surface resistivity from 10^16 Ω to 10^8–10^10 Ω while retaining its excellent properties.

High-Strength PEEK

In 1994, Mitsui Toatsu Chemical introduced the high-strength PEEK grade PKU-CF30, a composite of PEEK and specially treated carbon fibers. It offers exceptional mechanical strength and modulus, with a tensile strength of 284 MPa (slightly below aluminum alloys) and a specific strength of 206 MPa (far surpassing aluminum alloys).

Injection-molded automotive turbine impellers made from PKU-CF30 are half the weight of aluminum alloy equivalents, with high strength, heat resistance, and fatigue resistance. This cost-effective, high-performance material is used in Nissan’s main turbine vehicles.

PEEK Alloys

PEEK’s high cost and relatively low glass transition temperature (143°C) lead to rapid strength and modulus loss above this temperature. Improvements are achieved through glass fiber reinforcement or alloying. Blending PEEK with non-crystalline, high-glass-transition-temperature resins like polysulfone (PSF), polyetherimide (PEI), or polyethersulfone (PES) produces alloys with higher glass transition temperatures. For example, a 50/50 (by mass) PEEK/PEI blend achieves a glass transition temperature of 180°C, 37°C higher than PEEK alone. While PEEK’s absolute crystallinity and crystallization rate decrease, crystallinity is retained, and PEI’s solvent resistance improves.

Blending PEEK with polyphenylene sulfide (PPS) enhances melt flow, increases the glass transition temperature, and reduces costs.

Different polyaryletherketone varieties, such as PEEK and PEK, can be blended to form polymer alloys, adjusting melting points and glass transition temperatures by varying ether and ketone ratios. PEEK/liquid crystal polymer (LCP) alloys reduce strength and modulus loss above the glass transition temperature and improve flow length and processability compared to pure PEEK.

über SogaWorks

SogaWorks ist eine All-in-One-Online-Plattform für kundenspezifische mechanische Teile, die über 1.000 erstklassige Fabriken verbindet, um Start-ups und gro?e Unternehmen zu bedienen. Wir bieten flexible Fertigungsl?sungen für Rapid Prototyping, Kleinserientests und Gro?serienproduktion mit Dienstleistungen wie CNC-Bearbeitung, 3D printing, urethane casting, and injection molding. Surface finishes include anodizing, sand blasting and phosphating. With our AI-powered quoting engine, SogaWorks can deliver quotes in 5 seconds, match the best capacity, and track every step. This cuts delivery times and boosts product quality.

Comprehensive Guide to Properties of PEEK最先出現(xiàn)在SogaWorks。

Types of EDM

EDM processes vary and include EDM forming, wire EDM, EDM drilling, EDM grinding and boring, synchronous conjugate rotary EDM, surface strengthening, and engraving. The three most common types are: die sinking EDM, wire EDM, and hole drilling EDM.

Die sinking EDM

The tool electrode, typically made of copper or graphite, can be shaped into any desired form, producing a corresponding cavity in the workpiece.

Drahterodieren

Wire EDM is categorized into two types: slow-speed and fast-speed wire cutting. It uses electrode wires (0.1mm to 0.3mm in diameter) to cut through parts with straight textures, such as punch or die hole components.

Hole Drilling EDM

Hole drilling EDM is used to create holes, especially small, deep ones that don’t require deburring. A pulsed cylindrical electrode is used, with dielectric fluid injected into the cutting area as the workpiece is penetrated.

EDM is widely used for machining high-melting-point, high-strength, and high-toughness materials like stainless steel and mold steel, as well as complex molds and parts with specific surface requirements.

Principles of EDM

EDM relies on electrical erosion from pulsed spark discharges between the tool and workpiece (acting as positive and negative electrodes) to remove excess metal, achieving the desired dimensions, shapes, and surface quality.

As shown in the diagram (not included here), the workpiece and tool electrode are connected to opposite poles of a pulsed power source. Tool electrodes are typically made from highly conductive, high-melting-point, erosion-resistant materials like copper, graphite, copper-tungsten alloy, or molybdenum. During machining, the tool electrode experiences some wear, but far less than the material removed from the workpiece, sometimes nearing negligible loss.

The working fluid serves as a discharge medium while also cooling and removing debris. Common fluids include low-viscosity, high-flash-point, stable media like kerosene, deionized water, or emulsions.

When a pulsed voltage is applied and an appropriate gap is maintained between the electrodes, the working fluid is broken down, forming a discharge channel. This channel generates instantaneous high temperatures, melting or vaporizing the workpiece surface material and the working fluid. The rapid thermal expansion in the discharge gap causes an explosion, ejecting a small amount of material and forming tiny erosion pits.

After each pulse, a brief interval allows the working fluid to regain its insulating properties. Repeated pulses continue this process, gradually eroding the workpiece material. A servo system adjusts the tool electrode’s position relative to the workpiece, ensuring consistent discharges until the desired part is produced.

Advantages of EDM

EDM uses electrical and thermal energy, not mechanical force, to remove metal, offering several advantages over traditional machining:

Machining Hard-to-Cut Materials: EDM excels at processing materials that are difficult to machine conventionally, showcasing a “soft overcoming hard” approach. Material removal depends on thermal properties (e.g., melting point, specific heat, thermal conductivity) rather than mechanical properties like hardness or toughness. Tool electrodes don’t need to be harder than the workpiece, making them easier to manufacture.

Complex and Special Shapes: Without relative cutting motion or cutting forces, EDM is ideal for low-rigidity workpieces and micro-machining. The short pulse discharge minimizes the heat-affected zone, making it suitable for heat-sensitive materials. The tool electrode’s shape can be easily replicated onto the workpiece, perfect for thin-walled, low-rigidity, elastic, micro, or complex surfaces like mold cavities.

Automation: EDM’s electrical parameters are easier to control digitally, enabling adaptive and intelligent control for rough, semi-finishing, and finishing stages. Once parameters are set, no manual intervention is needed.

Improved Structural Design: EDM allows for replacing assembled or welded structures with single-piece designs, improving reliability, reducing size and weight, and shortening mold production cycles.

Flexible Process Routes: Unaffected by material hardness, EDM can be performed after quenching, avoiding heat treatment deformation. For example, in die-casting or forging mold production, molds can be quenched to over 56HRC.

Limitations of EDM

Despite its advantages, EDM has certain limitations:

Limited to Conductive Materials: EDM is primarily used for metals and cannot process non-conductive materials like plastics or ceramics. Recent research, however, shows potential for machining semiconductors and polycrystalline diamond under specific conditions.

Low Machining Efficiency: EDM’s material removal rate is typically below 20mm3/(A·min), much lower than traditional machining. It’s often used after mechanical cutting removes most material. There’s also a trade-off between speed and surface quality—fine machining is slow, and rough machining is limited by surface quality.

Accuracy Constraints: Electrode wear during EDM, especially at sharp corners or bases, affects forming accuracy. While modern machines reduce relative electrode wear to below 1% for roughing and 0.1% for finishing, low-wear electrodes for fine machining remain a challenge.

Surface Imperfections: High instantaneous heat creates thermal stress, forming a heat-affected layer or micro-cracks on the workpiece surface.

Minimum Corner Radius: The smallest corner radius achievable is slightly larger than the discharge gap (typically 0.02–0.03mm). Electrode wear or orbital machining increases this radius, preventing perfectly sharp corners.

External Conditions: Discharges must occur in a working fluid to avoid abnormal sparking, which complicates monitoring and limits workpiece size.

Surface Finish: EDM surfaces consist of numerous discharge pits, lacking the “gloss” of mechanically machined surfaces. Polishing is required for a shiny finish.

Technical Expertise: EDM requires significant skill. Success depends on selecting appropriate methods, electrical parameters, electrode setup, positioning, process monitoring, and allowance determination. Experience is critical, especially with less automated equipment.

Materials EDM Work with

Nearly all conductive materials can be machined with electrical discharge machining. The following are the most common materials we work with:

• Aluminium
• Rostfreier Stahl
• Titan
• Stahl
• Brass/Copper/Bronze

SogaWorks EDM Machining Capabilities

SogaWorks specializes in precision Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM) services. Our advanced EDM capabilities, including wire EDM and hole drilling EDM, enable us to machine materials like aluminum, stainless steel, and titanium with intricate shapes and tight tolerances to +/- 0.01 mm.

What is Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM)?最先出現(xiàn)在SogaWorks。

History of Phosphating

Phosphating has a long history and is one of the earliest surface treatment techniques in modern metal processing. Its development has gone through several stages.

In 1869, the discovery of phosphate coatings in the UK showed that they could effectively protect metals from corrosion over extended periods. This led to the first patent for phosphating, laying the foundation for its technological advancement.

From the early 20th century, phosphating began to be applied to industrial products, driving further development and entering a phase of practical application.

Now, phosphating processes have evolved to meet diverse needs, focusing on low-temperature processing, reduced residue, and environmentally friendly, non-toxic formulations.

Types of Phosphating

Unlike most surface treatments that result in a single color, phosphating can produce various colors—gray, iridescent, or black—depending on the phosphating agent used.

Iron Phosphating

This process creates a rainbow-like or blue coating, often called color phosphating. The phosphating solution, primarily composed of molybdate, forms a rainbow-colored film on steel surfaces. It is mainly used as a base layer for coatings to enhance corrosion resistance and improve adhesion of the topcoat.

Zinc Phosphating

This produces a gray coating, known as gray film phosphating. The solution typically contains phosphoric acid, sodium fluoride, and emulsifiers, forming a gray phosphate film on the metal surface. It serves as a base for processes like powder coating, painting, or electrophoresis. The gray film also provides some corrosion resistance and can be used alone as a protective coating on surfaces like galvanized steel, cold-rolled steel, or aluminum.

Manganese Phosphating

This results in a black or dark gray coating, often called black phosphating. Using a manganese-ion-containing solution, it forms a black phosphate film with superior rust resistance, making it ideal for long-term corrosion protection. Its low friction coefficient makes it suitable for components subject to frequent friction, such as automotive parts and fasteners.

Principles of Phosphating

Phosphating works by triggering a chemical reaction between active sites on the metal surface and phosphate ions in the solution, forming a dense phosphate conversion coating. During this process, impurities like oil and rust are removed, exposing more active sites to facilitate the reaction.

Steps in the Phosphating Process

Phosphating typically involves the following steps:

Pre-treatment: Removes oil, rust, and oxide scales to provide a clean surface for the phosphating reaction.

Phosphating Reaction: The metal is immersed in a phosphating solution, where a chemical reaction forms a phosphate conversion coating. The solution’s formula and process parameters significantly affect the coating’s quality and performance.

Post-treatment: Includes rinsing, drying, and passivation to remove residual chemicals and enhance the coating’s corrosion resistance and durability. Each step is followed by rinsing to remove residual chemicals, ensuring the next step proceeds smoothly. After phosphating and rinsing, the workpiece is dried to complete the process, ready for further processing or use.

Phosphating is a simple and practical method for corrosion protection in modern metal surface treatments. It plays a critical role as a pre-treatment step and has significantly advanced the surface coating industry. However, challenges remain, driving improvements toward energy efficiency, environmental friendliness, non-toxicity, and higher efficiency.

Why Does Phosphating Produce Multiple Colors?

The ability of phosphating to produce various colors depends on factors like the coating formation mechanism, phosphating solution formula, process parameters, and post-treatment. Below, we explore these in detail.

Coating Formation Mechanism

The phosphate coating forms through a chemical reaction between active sites on the metal surface and phosphate ions in the solution. Different metals and phosphate ions produce distinct chemical combinations, resulting in coatings with varying colors and properties. For example, iron phosphate films typically appear gray-black, while zinc phosphate films may be light yellow or gray.

Phosphating Solution

The solution’s composition significantly influences the coating’s color and performance. Typically containing phosphates, additives, and auxiliaries, the solution’s phosphate type and concentration alter the coating’s composition and structure, affecting its color. Additives like organic dyes or inorganic pigments can also be included to produce specific colors.

Process Parameters

Parameters like temperature, time, and pH affect the reaction rate and extent, influencing the coating’s composition and structure. For instance, higher temperatures can accelerate the reaction, creating a denser, more uniform coating, while longer processing times result in thicker, more robust coatings. These changes impact the coating’s color and performance.

Post-Treatment

Post-treatments like rinsing, drying, and passivation can alter the coating’s surface state and chemical properties, affecting its color and performance. For example, different passivating agents can modify the coating’s color and corrosion resistance during passivation.

Schlussfolgerung

With advancements in technology and industry, phosphating is increasingly vital in metal surface treatments. Future developments will focus on efficiency, environmental sustainability, and multifunctionality. Optimizing solution formulas and process parameters can produce more uniform and dense coatings, while eco-friendly phosphating agents and additives will reduce pollution and waste. Additionally, combining phosphating with other surface treatments, like spraying or electroplating, can further enhance metal surface performance and aesthetics.

über SogaWorks

SogaWorks ist eine All-in-One-Online-Plattform für kundenspezifische mechanische Teile, die über 1.000 erstklassige Fabriken verbindet, um Start-ups und gro?e Unternehmen zu bedienen. Wir bieten flexible Fertigungsl?sungen für Rapid Prototyping, Kleinserientests und Gro?serienproduktion mit Dienstleistungen wie CNC-Bearbeitung, 3D printing, urethane casting, and injection molding. Surface finishes include anodizing, sand blasting and phosphating. With our AI-powered quoting engine, SogaWorks can deliver quotes in 5 seconds, match the best capacity, and track every step. This cuts delivery times and boosts product quality.

Surface Finish: What is Phosphating Coating?最先出現(xiàn)在SogaWorks。

Around 1500, Italian polymath Leonardo da Vinci sketched a thread-processing device that included concepts for using a lead screw and interchangeable gears to produce threads with different pitches. Subsequently, mechanical thread-cutting methods were developed in the European watchmaking industry. In 1760, British brothers J. Wyatt and W. Wyatt patented a specialized device for cutting wooden screws. In 1778, Englishman J. Ramsden built a thread-cutting device driven by a worm gear pair, capable of producing highly precise long threads. In 1797, Englishman H. Maudslay, using an improved lathe, employed a lead screw and interchangeable gears to turn metal threads with varying pitches, establishing the foundation for modern thread turning.

In the 1820s, Maudslay produced the first taps and dies for thread processing. In the early 20th century, the rise of the automotive industry drove thread standardization and the development of precise, efficient thread-processing methods. Automatic opening die heads and retractable taps were invented, and thread milling began to be used. In the early 1930s, thread grinding emerged. Although thread rolling technology was patented in the early 19th century, its development was slow due to challenges in manufacturing molds. It wasn’t until World War II (1942–1945), when advancements in thread grinding solved mold precision issues, that thread rolling saw rapid progress due to the demands of munitions production.

Threads are primarily divided into connecting threads and transmission threads. For connecting threads, the main processing methods include tapping, threading, turning, rolling, and rubbing. For transmission threads, the primary methods are rough and finish turning followed by grinding, or cyclone milling followed by rough and finish turning.

Category 1: Thread Cutting

Thread cutting generally refers to processing threads on a workpiece using forming tools or grinding equipment. These include turning, milling, tapping, threading, grinding and lapping. During turning, milling, or grinding, the machine’s transmission chain ensures that the tool (turning tool, milling cutter, or grinding wheel) moves accurately and uniformly along the workpiece’s axis by one lead per revolution. In tapping or threading, the tool (tap or die) rotates relative to the workpiece, guided by pre-formed thread grooves to move axially.

1.?Thread Turning

Thread turning on a lathe can be done using a forming tool or a thread comb tool. Turning with a forming tool is commonly used for single-piece or small-batch thread production due to its simple structure. Thread comb tools offer high efficiency but more complex structures, which makes them suitable for medium to large-volume production of short, fine-pitch threads. Ordinary lathes typically achieve a pitch accuracy of Grade 8–9 (per JB2886-81 standard); Specialized thread lathes significantly improve productivity or precision.

2.?Thread Milling

Thread milling is performed on a thread milling machine using a disc-shaped or comb-shaped milling cutter. Disc-shaped cutters are primarily used for milling trapezoidal external threads on screws or worm gears. Comb-shaped cutters are used for milling internal and external standard threads. Since multi-edge cutters are used and their working length exceeds the thread length, the workpiece only needs to rotate 1.25–1.5 times to complete processing, which offers higher productivity. Thread milling typically achieves a pitch accuracy of Grade 8–9 and a surface roughness of 5–0.63 microns. This method is ideal for batch production of general-precision threads or roughing before grinding.

3.?Thread Grinding

Thread grinding uses thread grinding machines to process precision threads on hardened workpieces. It is divided into single-line and multi-line grinding based on the cross-sectional shape of the grinding wheel. Single-line grinding achieves a pitch accuracy of Grade 5–6 with a surface roughness of 1.25–0.08 microns. This method is suitable for grinding precision screws, thread gauges, worms, small-batch threaded workpieces, and precision hobs. Multi-line grinding is further divided into longitudinal and plunge grinding. In longitudinal grinding, the wheel width is less than the thread length, and the wheel moves longitudinally once or several times to achieve the final dimensions. In plunge grinding, the wheel width exceeds the thread length, and the wheel cuts radially into the workpiece. Plunge grinding offers higher productivity but slightly lower precision. It’s suitable for grinding large batches of taps or certain fastening threads.

4.?Thread Lapping

Thread lapping uses softer materials like cast iron to make nut- or screw-shaped lapping tools. These tools rotate in both directions to correct pitch errors in pre-machined threads, improving accuracy. Hardened internal threads are often lapped to eliminate deformation and enhance precision.

5.?Tapping and Threading

Tapping: Rotating a tap with a specific torque into a pre-drilled hole to create internal threads.

Threading: Uses a die to cut external threads on a rod or tube. The accuracy depends on the precision of the tap or die. Although there are many methods for making internal and external threads, small-diameter internal threads can only be produced by tapping. Tapping and threading can be done manually or using lathes, drilling machines, tapping machines, or threading machines.

Category 2: Thread Rolling

Thread rolling uses forming molds to plastically deform a workpiece to create threads. It is typically performed on rolling or rubbing machines or automatic lathes with self-opening thread rolling heads. This method is ideal for mass-producing standard fasteners and other threaded components. Rolled external threads generally have a maximum diameter of 25 mm and a length of up to 100 mm, with a thread accuracy of up to Grade 2 (GB197-63). The blank diameter is roughly equal to the thread’s pitch diameter. Rolling cannot typically produce internal threads, but for softer materials, slotless extrusion taps can cold-form internal threads up to about 30 mm in diameter, with a working principle similar to tapping. Cold-forming internal threads requires about twice the torque of tapping, with slightly higher precision and surface quality.

6. Rubbing

Two thread-forming rubbing plates, offset by half a pitch, are arranged with one plate fixed and the other moving linearly parallel to it. When a workpiece is fed between the plates, the moving plate presses and deforms the workpiece surface to form threads.

7.?Rolling

Rolling is divided into radial, tangential, and rolling head methods:

Radial Rolling: Two (or three) thread-forming rolling wheels are mounted on parallel axes, with the workpiece supported between them. Both wheels rotate in the same direction at the same speed, with one wheel also feeding radially. The workpiece rotates under the wheels’ drive, and the surface is radially pressed to form threads. This method can also be used for rolling low-precision screws.

Tangential Rolling (Planetary Rolling): The rolling tool consists of a rotating central wheel and three fixed arc-shaped plates. Workpieces are continuously fed, offering higher productivity than rubbing or radial rolling.

Rolling Head Rolling: Performed on automatic lathes for short threads. The rolling head has 3–4 rolling wheels evenly distributed around the workpiece. During rolling, the workpiece rotates, and the rolling head feeds axially to form threads.

8.?Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM) for Threads

Standard thread processing typically utilizes machining centers or tapping tools, which may be performed manually. However, in specific cases, such as threading after heat treatment due to oversight or threading hard materials like cemented carbide, conventional methods may not yield good results. In such cases, EDM is a viable option.

Compared to mechanical machining, EDM follows a similar sequence, requiring a pre-drilled hole with a diameter determined by the working conditions. The electrode must be shaped like a thread and rotated during processing.

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Figure 1: Average use of aluminum per car in Western Europe

Aluminum Alloys in Powertrains

Most aluminum supplied to the automotive market is used in powertrain systems. On average, European-produced vehicles contain about 80 kg of aluminum in their powertrains, accounting for 55-60% of the total aluminum content. In North America and Southeast Asia, this proportion is even higher, reaching 65-70%.

The majority of aluminum powertrain components (80-85%) are castings, produced using various casting techniques. These casting alloys typically contain silicon, magnesium, and copper, with alloying elements making up to 20% of the composition. Many cast aluminum alloys are made from recycled aluminum, often sourced from post-consumer scrap, such as recycled vehicles. Components made from wrought aluminum alloys are less common, with roughly 10% from rolled sheets, 5% from extruded aluminum, and about 1% from forged aluminum.

Aluminum is the preferred material for powertrain applications, having effectively dominated the passenger car powertrain market with near-complete market penetration. For instance, over 50 years ago, aluminum replaced copper or brass as the primary material for heat exchangers and is now the only material used in these applications. Aluminum is also virtually the only material used for pistons. For cylinder heads, transmission housings, and many auxiliary components, full market penetration is rapidly approaching. Recently, engine blocks have been the largest driver of aluminum growth, initially in gasoline engines and now in diesel engines, displacing cast iron. However, further growth potential in powertrains is limited. In some applications, other lightweight solutions, such as high-performance plastics for parts not exposed to high temperatures and cast magnesium solutions, are beginning to replace aluminum castings. As global trends push for smaller, more fuel-efficient vehicles, the absolute amount of aluminum used in powertrain components (engines, transmissions, and drivetrain parts) may decline.

Applications of aluminum in powertrain components include:

• Pistons
• Engine blocks
• Cylinder liners
• Cylinder heads
• Fuel systems
• Heat shields
• Heat exchangers
• Other engine components
• Transmission systems

Suppliers of engine blocks are continuously working to produce better, lighter blocks to improve engine efficiency. The engine block (or cylinder block/crankcase) is the largest and most complex single metal component in an internal combustion engine, accounting for 3-4% of a vehicle’s total weight. As such, it plays a critical role in weight reduction efforts. Aluminum casting alloys can reduce engine block weight by 40-55%. Additionally, both engine blocks and cylinder heads require materials with excellent thermal conductivity and corrosion resistance, areas where aluminum alloys excel.

The use of aluminum engine blocks began in the late 1970s for gasoline engines. Due to more demanding technical requirements, cast iron replacement in diesel engines was limited until the mid-1990s. As diesel engine production increased, the need for lightweight design standards grew, and by around 2005, aluminum engine blocks achieved a 50% market share, with penetration continuing to rise. Today, gasoline engine blocks are typically made of aluminum, and with ongoing alloy advancements, their use in diesel engine blocks is also growing rapidly.

Figure 2: Ford Mustang Shelby GT500 engine block, produced by Honsel using patented low-pressure sand casting and innovative cylinder bore coating technology

Commonly used alloys for engine blocks include EN AC-46200 (AlSi8Cu3) and EN AC-45000 (AlSi6Cu4), which are similar to U.S. standard alloys A380.2 and A319, respectively. These hypoeutectic aluminum-silicon alloys, often made from recycled aluminum, are primarily used in gravity casting processes for engine blocks. Their relatively high copper content allows them to maintain strength at elevated temperatures and makes them easy to machine. Components are typically used in as-cast (F) condition or with T4 or T5 heat treatments. While T6 tempering is possible, T5 stabilization tempering is often sufficient for many designs. Nearly all high-pressure die-cast engine blocks are made from the common secondary alloy EN AC-46000 (AlSi9Cu3(Fe)).

Pistons are made from cast or forged high-temperature-resistant aluminum-silicon alloys. There are three main types of aluminum alloys. The standard alloy is a eutectic Al-12%Si alloy with about 1% each of copper, nickel, and magnesium. For improved high-temperature strength, specialized eutectic alloys with 18% and 24% silicon (hypereutectic) have been developed, offering lower thermal expansion and wear but reduced strength. In practice, piston suppliers use a wider range of optimized alloy compositions, generally based on these types. Most pistons are produced using gravity die casting. Optimized alloy compositions and controlled solidification conditions enable the production of lightweight, high-strength pistons. Forged pistons made from eutectic or hypereutectic alloys exhibit higher strength and are used in high-performance engines where pistons endure greater stress. Forged pistons with the same alloy composition have a finer microstructure than cast pistons, and the forging process provides greater strength at lower temperatures, allowing for thinner walls and reduced piston weight.

Figure 3: Aluminum Alloy Piston

Aluminum Alloy Wheels

Aluminum alloy wheels have increasingly replaced steel wheels due to their lightweight, excellent heat dissipation, and attractive appearance. Over the past decade, aluminum alloy wheels have grown at an annual rate of 7.6%, with analyses indicating that by 2010, the aluminum penetration rate for wheels reached 72-78%. A365 is a casting aluminum alloy with good casting properties and high overall mechanical performance, widely used for cast aluminum wheels worldwide.

Figure 4: Aluminum Alloy Wheel

Aluminum Alloy Body Solutions

In the early days of automotive and aluminum production, aluminum sheets were used for vehicle bodies. However, during the era of mass production and cost prioritization, steel became dominant. Steel bodies are traditionally made from stamped sheet parts joined by resistance spot welding. The introduction of high-strength and ultra-high-strength steel grades has enabled improved rigidity and crash resistance and/or weight reduction with minimal additional cost.

Design and manufacturing principles similar to steel body structures can be applied to achieve all-aluminum bodies. However, the significant performance differences between steel and aluminum mean that simple material substitution does not always yield cost-optimized solutions. A holistic approach is required, considering the entire system of construction materials, appropriate design concepts, and applicable manufacturing methods. Promising aluminum body concepts, such as Europe’s Aluminum Space Frame (ASF) and Tesla’s integrated casting approach, result from aluminum-oriented design and corresponding manufacturing technologies.

Compared to steel, one of aluminum’s key advantages is the ability to produce extrusions with complex cross-sections, single- or multi-cavity profiles, and thin-walled, complex-shaped castings with excellent mechanical properties. These components can serve not only load-bearing or reinforcing functions but also as connecting elements. The proper use of extruded or die-cast products enables innovative structural design solutions, significantly reducing weight and cost through component integration and the addition of extra functionality.

When aluminum sheet thickness is increased by 40%, it exhibits dent and bending stiffness similar to steel, achieving a 50% weight reduction through material substitution. For profiles, aluminum’s potential for weight reduction is particularly significant when profile geometry can be modified, such as switching from open to closed profiles or introducing multi-cavity profiles. Additionally, when profile diameter can be increased, extruded aluminum profiles offer clear advantages.

Aluminum alloys have a much lower melting point than steel or iron, making casting easier.

Key elements of aluminum alloy monocoque body structures include:

• Load-bearing profiles
• Reinforcing panels
• Connecting elements

Figure 5: Sheet + Profile + Node Aluminum Alloy Body

Aluminum Alloy Body Examples

Sheet-intensive body design concepts, established and validated for steel bodies, can also be implemented with aluminum sheets, though not as easily as with steel. Aluminum alloys are still considered a premium material for mid- to high-end vehicles. The Panhard Z1, introduced in 1953, is an early example, using EN AW-5754 (AlMg3) alloy sheets in series production. In the early 1980s, several aluminum concept cars were developed, often simply replacing steel sheets with aluminum in existing models. For example, at the 1981 Frankfurt Motor Show, a Porsche 928 with an all-aluminum body was showcased, developed in collaboration with Alusuisse using Anticorodal?-120 (EN AW-6016) alloy sheets (1.2 mm for closures, 2.5 mm for structural parts). The aluminum body weighed 161 kg, 106 kg lighter than its steel counterpart. Shortly afterward, Audi began extensive aluminum research, developing an aluminum body based on the Audi 100.

Figure 6: Audi 100 Aluminum Sheet Concept Car (1985)

The first mass-produced all-aluminum body vehicle was Honda’s 1989 Acura NSX, a high-performance two-seater sports car built in limited quantities by hand. It featured a 163 kg all-aluminum monocoque body with some extruded aluminum profiles in the frame and suspension. The aluminum body alone reduced weight by nearly 200 kg compared to a steel body, with the aluminum suspension saving an additional 20 kg. A specialized paint process, including an aircraft-grade chromate coating for chemical protection, was used. The body structure, made from high-strength aluminum alloys and advanced construction techniques, was 40% lighter yet stronger than comparable steel bodies, joined using a combination of spot welding and MIG welding.

Following the NSX, Audi achieved the first large-scale production of an all-aluminum body with the 1993 Audi A8 ASF (Audi Space Frame), unveiled at the Frankfurt Motor Show. A year later, the production version was launched at the Geneva Motor Show. The ASF technology extensively used aluminum alloys for both the body-in-white and outer panels, a technology later applied to models like the A2, TT, and R8.

Figure 7: Audi Space Frame Body

Rising fuel prices, CO2 regulations, and increasing comfort and equipment demands have driven a strong trend toward lightweighting. Enhanced comfort and sporty driving have also spurred innovation in lightweight design and engineering, promoting the use of aluminum alloy sheets in vehicles. Today, beyond Audi, many luxury brands, such as Jaguar Land Rover, extensively use all-aluminum bodies. Ford has also introduced aluminum alloys in its iconic F-150 pickup truck.

Extruded Profiles

Advanced aluminum extrusion technology has opened up a wide range of solutions and applications. Complex profile shapes enable innovative, lightweight designs with integrated functionality. In Europe, flexible vehicle concepts like the Aluminum Space Frame (ASF) and complex substructures (e.g., chassis components, bumpers, crash elements, and airbag components) have been developed using aluminum profiles. These offer high potential for complex designs and functional integration, making them ideal for cost-effective mass production.

Medium-strength 6xxx and high-strength 7xxx age-hardenable alloys are commonly used in extrusion processes, with formability and final strength controlled by subsequent aging treatments. Extrusions are widely used in bumper beams, crash boxes, and other components, representing a major market for aluminum profiles.

Aluminum Alloy Sheets

The main aluminum alloy categories for automotive sheet applications are non-heat-treatable Al-Mg (5xxx series) and heat-treatable Al-Mg-Si (6xxx series) alloys, some of which are tailored for specific properties, such as optimized Al-Mg alloys for chassis strength and corrosion resistance or Al-Mg-Si alloys for body panels with improved formability, surface appearance, and age-hardening response. Specific properties and key differences are illustrated in Figure 13. The effects of alloying elements and process parameters contribute to enhanced performance and efficient manufacturing.

Figure 8: Comparison of 5xxx and 6xxx Series Aluminum Alloys

The 6xxx series alloys, containing magnesium and silicon, include both copper-containing and copper-free variants. Currently used 6xxx alloys for body panels include 6009, 6010, 6016, 6111, and the newer 6181A for recycling. In the U.S., AA6111 is commonly used for 0.9-1.0 mm outer panels, offering high strength and good formability. In Europe, EN-6016 is preferred for gauges of about 1-1.2 mm, providing superior formability, better filiform corrosion resistance than high-copper alloys, and flat edges even on locally pre-deformed parts. However, its bake-hardening strength is notably lower than 6111. The supply balance for 5xxx and 6xxx automotive sheet alloys is increasingly shifting toward 6xxx alloys, driven by OEM demand for higher strength, which is more easily achieved with 6xxx alloys. These alloys account for at least 80% of the current automotive sheet supply. The 6xxx series offers versatility, heat-treatability, high formability, and weldability.

Non-heat-treatable 5xxx Al-Mg-Mn alloys, with excellent formability restored through intermediate annealing, are widely used for complex-shaped automotive components. Their age-hardening does not require quenching, supporting high-consistency tolerances. A successful example is chassis components, such as the BMW 5 Series rear axle subframe, made from 3.5-4.0 mm sheets using hydroforming and welded tubes for high functional integration. The new BMW 7 Series combines tubes and castings, with a total weight of just 14.1 kg.

Body Examples

• Framework: The most load-bearing parts, using 2000 or 7000 series materials, are strengthened through heat treatment.
• Outer Panels: Secondary load-bearing areas, using 5000 or 6000 series materials.
• Doors: Using 5000 or 6000 series materials.
• Floors: Using 5000 or 6000 series materials.

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What is density?

The mass per unit volume of a substance is called density, which is represented by the symbol ρ, and its calculation formula is ρ=m/v (m is mass, v is volume). The concept of density can be used to solve a series of practical problems, such as calculating the mass of blanks, identifying metal materials, etc.

Density of Aluminum

The density is mainly related to the alloying elements and content in the aluminum alloy. The smaller the volume of magnesium and silicon, the lower the density; the higher the volume of iron, manganese, copper, zinc, and other elements, the greater the density. Basically, it will be between 2.6-2.9 g/cm3.

How to Calculate Weight by the Aluminum Density?

The mass of aluminum alloy is: m=l*w*δ*p (the letter l represents the length, the letter w represents the width, the thickness of the metal plate is usually represented by the Greek letter symbol δ, and the letter p represents the density.)

Step 1: Find its density according to the grade of aluminum alloy

The density of aluminum alloy varies according to the alloying elements added, generally between 2.6 g/cm3 and 2.9 g/cm3. The density of aluminum varies with its purity; the higher the impurity content, the greater its density. We know the density of aluminum 7075 is 2810 kg/m3(2.810 g/cm3) by looking up the table above.

Step 2: Calculate the volume of aluminum alloy

The volume of aluminum alloy material is equal to length x width x thickness. That is, V= l*w*δ

For example: An aluminum alloy plate is 6mm thick, 1200mm wide, and 2440mm long.

Its volume is (the density of the aluminum alloy plate is known to be 0.00275g/mm 2440mm*1200mm*6mm=17568000mm

Step 3: Calculate the mass of aluminum alloy

The mass density of aluminum alloy material x volume, that is, m=p*V
Still, the previous example: An aluminum 7075 plate is 6mm thick, 1200mm wide, and 2440mm long, the density of the aluminum 7075 plate is known to be 0.0.00281 g/mm3:
m=2440mm*1200mm*6mm*0.00281 g/mm3=49366.08 g

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St?rke

(1) Tensile strength R_m

The maximum stress value that a material can withstand during the stretching process, indicating the material’s ability to resist tensile fracture.

Measurement method: tensile test. Use a tensile testing machine to clamp the prepared standard sample on the fixture of the testing machine, and apply tensile force evenly at a specified speed until the sample breaks. The tensile strength is calculated using the maximum tensile force value F_m recorded by the testing machine and the original cross-sectional area S₀. It is calculated by the formula R_m = F_m/S₀

(2) Yield strength R_e

The minimum stress value is when the material begins to produce obvious plastic deformation. For materials with obvious yield phenomenon, yield strength refers to the minimum stress in the yield stage; for materials without obvious yield phenomenon, the stress when the residual elongation is 0.2% is usually specified as the specified plastic extension strength, which is used as the yield strength indicator of the material.

Measurement method: Through tensile test. During the test, the stress-strain curve is recorded by the testing machine, and the stress value corresponding to the yield point is determined from the curve. For materials without an obvious yield phenomenon, an extensometer needs to be installed on the sample to accurately measure the strain. When the residual elongation reaches 0.2%, the corresponding stress is the specified plastic extension strength.

(3) Compressive strength R_mc

The maximum stress a material can withstand when subjected to a compressive load.

Measurement method: Carry out a compression test. Place the cylindrical or block-shaped specimen between the upper and lower pressure plates of the pressure testing machine, and slowly apply pressure to make the specimen bear the axial compression load until the specimen is destroyed or reaches the specified deformation. Record the maximum pressure value F_mc during the test, and calculate the compressive strength through the formula R_mc = F_mc / S₀ based on the original pressure-bearing area of the specimen S₀.

(4) Bending strength R_mb

The ability of a material to resist failure in bending.

Measurement method: Three-point bending test or the four-point bending test is commonly used. Taking the three-point bending test as an example, a rectangular or circular cross-section specimen is placed on two supporting points, and a concentrated load is applied at the mid-span position of the specimen. During the test, the maximum load F_mb at which the specimen breaks, as well as the dimensional parameters of the specimen (such as span L, section width b, height h), are recorded, and the bending strength is calculated according to the formula Rmb = 3F_mbL / 2bh².

Plasticity

(1) Elongation A

The total elongation of the gauge length after the material breaks during tension to the original gauge length, reflecting the plastic deformation capacity of the material during the tension process.

Measuring method: After the tensile test, the broken specimens are butt-joined together and the gauge length L after breaking is measured. The original gauge length is L₀ and the elongation is calculated according to the formula A = (L – L₀) /L₀ *100%.

(2) Sectional shrinkage Z

The maximum reduction in cross-sectional area at the fracture after the material is stretched and fractured as a percentage of the original cross-sectional area.

Measurement method: After the tensile test, measure the minimum cross-sectional area D₁ at the fracture, and the original cross-sectional area D₀ is used to calculate the section shrinkage rate. It is calculated by the formula Z = (D₀-D₁)/D₀*100%

H?rte

(1) Brinell hardness (HB)

Use a steel ball or carbide ball of a certain diameter to press into the surface of the specimen with a specified test force. After the specified holding time, remove the test force and measure the indentation diameter on the specimen surface. The hardness value is calculated based on the indentation diameter.

Measurement method: Use a Brinell hardness tester, place the sample on the workbench, select a suitable indenter and test force. Start the hardness tester, press the indenter into the sample surface under the test force, and remove the test force after maintaining it for a specified time. Use a reading microscope to measure the indentation diameter, and calculate the hardness value according to the Brinell hardness calculation formula HB = 2F/πD(D -(D²-d²)^1/2), where F is the test force, D is the indenter diameter, and d is the indentation diameter.

(2) Rockwell hardness (HR)

A diamond cone or steel ball is used as an indenter. The indenter is pressed into the sample surface with the initial test force and the main test force. The hardness value is determined according to the indentation depth. There are different scales for Rockwell hardness, such as HRA, HRB, HRC, etc., which are suitable for materials with different hardness ranges.

Measuring method: To operate the Rockwell hardness tester, first place the sample steadily, apply the initial test force, make the indenter in good contact with the sample surface, and then apply the main test force. Maintain the main test force for a specified time and then remove it. Read the hardness value directly from the scale on the hardness tester dial or the electronic display device. When measuring Rockwell hardness on different scales, the parameters such as the indenter type and test force are different.

(3) Vickers hardness (HV)

A regular quadrangular pyramid diamond indenter with an angle of 136° between the opposite faces is pressed into the surface of the sample under a certain test force. After maintaining the test force for a specified time, the test force is removed and the diagonal length of the indentation is measured. The hardness value is obtained by calculation.

Measurement method: Use a Vickers hardness tester, fix the sample on the workbench, and select a suitable test force. Start the hardness tester, and press the indenter into the sample surface under the test force. After maintaining the test force for a specified time, remove the test force. Use a microscope to measure the diagonal lengths d1 and d2 of the indentation, take their average value, and calculate the Vickers hardness value according to the formula HV = 1.8544F/d², where F is the test force and d is the average diagonal length of the indentation.

Toughness

(1) Impact toughness a_k

The ability of a material to absorb plastic deformation work and fracture work under impact load, expressed by the ratio of the impact work absorbed by the material when it breaks in an impact test to the cross-sectional area of the notch of the specimen.

Measurement method: The commonly used Charpy impact test. Place the specimen with the specified notch on the support of the impact tester and use the impact energy of the pendulum to break the specimen. The impact tester automatically records the energy difference before and after the pendulum impact, that is, the impact energy absorbed by the specimen A_k. Measure the cross-sectional area S at the notch of the specimen and calculate the impact toughness according to the formula a_k = A_k / S.

(2) Fracture toughness K_IC

It is used to measure the ability of a material containing cracks to resist crack propagation. It is an important indicator reflecting the material’s ability to resist brittle fracture.

Measurement method: Determined by fracture toughness test, such as the commonly used compact tensile test (CT test). Prepare a standard specimen with a prefabricated crack, and apply a tensile load to the specimen at a specified loading rate on a testing machine. During the test, record the load-displacement curve during crack propagation, and calculate the fracture toughness value of the material through a specific formula and method. The calculation process is relatively complicated and needs to consider factors such as the geometry of the specimen and the crack size.

Fatigue

(1) Fatigue strength σ_-1

The maximum stress value of a material that does not suffer fatigue failure under infinitely many alternating loads. The maximum stress that does not suffer fatigue failure when the number of cycles reaches a certain value (such as times) is generally defined as the fatigue strength.

Measurement method: Fatigue test. Use a fatigue testing machine to install the sample on the testing machine and subject it to alternating loads of symmetrical or asymmetrical cycles. During the test, gradually adjust the load size and record the number of cycles when the sample is fatigued at different stress levels. Draw a stress-life SN curve based on a large amount of test data, and determine the maximum stress value that does not cause fatigue failure under the specified number of cycles based on the curve, which is the fatigue strength.

(2) Fatigue life N_f

The number of cycles a material undergoes from the beginning of loading to fatigue failure under a given alternating load.

Measurement method: In fatigue tests, the number of cycles from the beginning of loading to fatigue failure of the specimen under a specific alternating load is directly recorded, and this number is the fatigue life. By measuring the fatigue life under different load levels, the fatigue characteristic curve of the material can be obtained.

Elasticity

The property of a material that deforms when subjected to stress and can completely recover to its original shape and size when the external force is removed. This deformation is called elastic deformation. Within the elastic deformation range, there is a linear relationship between stress and strain, which conforms to Hooke’s law, that is calculated by the formula σ = Eε , where stress is σ, E is the elastic modulus, and the strain is ε.

a. Tensile test method: During the tensile test, the elastic behavior of the material is verified by measuring the strain generated by applying different forces in the elastic stage using Hooke’s law. The elongation under different loads is recorded, the corresponding stress and strain are calculated, and the stress-strain curve is plotted. The linear part of the curve represents the elastic stage of the material. In this stage, the stress is proportional to the strain, and the slope is the elastic modulus. In this way, the elastic properties of the material can be intuitively observed and the elastic modulus can be determined.

b. Dynamic measurement method: The elastic constants of materials are measured using the resonance method or the ultrasonic method. For example, the resonance method is to excite the resonant frequency of the material and calculate the elastic parameters such as the elastic modulus of the material, based on the relationship between the material’s geometry, mass and resonant frequency. The ultrasonic method uses the relationship between the propagation speed of ultrasonic waves in the material and the elastic properties to determine the elastic modulus by measuring the propagation speed of ultrasonic waves. These dynamic measurement methods are generally suitable for rapid and non-destructive evaluation of the elastic properties of materials, and are particularly important in industrial production and quality control.

Stiffness

The ability of a structure or component to resist deformation, usually expressed as the ratio of the applied force to the resulting deformation, is related to the elastic modulus of the material and the geometry and size of the component.

Measurement method: For simple structures or components, the stiffness can be obtained through theoretical calculation. For actual engineering structures, experimental methods can be used for measurement. For example, a loading test is performed on the beam to measure the deflection of the beam under different loads, and the stiffness of the beam is calculated based on the relationship between load and deflection. Finite element analysis software can also be used to simulate and analyze the structure to calculate the stiffness distribution and overall stiffness value of the structure.

Wear resistance

The ability of a material surface to resist wear.

Measurement method: Common test methods include the pin-on-disk wear test and the ring-block wear test. Taking the pin-on-disk wear test as an example, a pin-shaped specimen is brought into contact with a rotating disc specimen and a certain pressure is applied to perform a wear test at a certain speed and time. After the test, the mass loss or dimensional change of the pin-shaped specimen is measured to evaluate the wear resistance of the material. The wear resistance of the material can also be analyzed by observing the morphology of the worn surface and the wear mechanism.

Korrosionsbest?ndigkeit

The ability of a material to resist corrosion from surrounding environmental media (such as atmosphere, water, chemicals, etc.).

Measurement method: There are many measurement methods. The weight loss method is to make a sample of a certain size, expose it to a specific corrosive medium, take it out after a certain period, clean it, dry it and weigh it, calculate the corrosion rate based on the mass change of the sample before and after corrosion, and evaluate the corrosion resistance of the material.

Electrochemical methods, such as polarization curve measurement and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, can study the electrochemical behavior of materials in corrosive media and evaluate their corrosion resistance by measuring parameters like corrosion potential and corrosion current density.

In addition, there are accelerated corrosion test methods, such as the salt spray test and immersion test, to simulate the corrosion conditions in the actual use environment and quickly evaluate the corrosion resistance of the material.

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9 Mechanical Properties of Material and How to Measure Them最先出現(xiàn)在SogaWorks。

Was ist ABS-Kunststoff??

ABS-Harz ist ein tern?res Copolymer, das aus Acrylnitril (A), Butadien (B) und Styrol (S) sowie dessen modifizierten Varianten besteht. Kunststoffe, die aus ABS-Harz hergestellt werden, werden allgemein als ABS-Kunststoffe bezeichnet. Dieses Material vereint die Steifigkeit, chemische Best?ndigkeit und W?rmebest?ndigkeit von Polyacrylnitril, die Verarbeitbarkeit und ?sthetik von Polystyrol und die Schlagz?higkeit und K?ltebest?ndigkeit von Polybutadien.

ABS-Harz erscheint normalerweise als blassgelbes Granulat oder Pulver. Es ist ungiftig, geruchlos, leicht (mit einer Dichte von 1,04-1,07 g/cm3) und bietet eine ausgezeichnete Schlagz?higkeit, eine gute Leistung bei niedrigen Temperaturen und chemische Best?ndigkeit. Au?erdem zeichnet es sich durch Dimensionsstabilit?t, hohen Oberfl?chenglanz und einfache Beschichtung und Einf?rbung aus. ABS hat jedoch einige Einschr?nkungen: Es ist entflammbar, hat eine relativ niedrige W?rmeformbest?ndigkeit und weist eine schlechte Witterungsbest?ndigkeit auf.

Arten und Leistung von ABS

ABS-Harz kann in einer breiten Palette von Zusammensetzungen und Strukturen ma?geschneidert werden, um spezifische Leistungsanforderungen zu erfüllen.

Mechanische Eigenschaften

Die Zugfestigkeit von ABS variiert je nach Sorte erheblich und liegt in der Regel zwischen 33 und 52 MPa. ABS ist für seine au?ergew?hnliche Schlagz?higkeit bekannt. Hochschlagz?he ABS-Typen k?nnen bei Raumtemperatur eine Izod-Kerbschlagz?higkeit von etwa 400 J/m erreichen, die selbst bei -40°C noch Werte von über 120 J/m aufweist. Dies ist auf die zweiphasige Struktur von ABS zurückzuführen: eine kontinuierliche Harzphase mit dispergierten Gummipartikeln. Diese Gummipartikel absorbieren die Aufprallenergie, verhindern die Rissausbreitung und erh?hen die Z?higkeit.

Die Schlagz?higkeit h?ngt von Faktoren wie Kautschukgehalt, Veredelungsgrad und Partikelgr??e ab. Ein h?herer Kautschukgehalt (in der Regel 25 - 40% nach Masse) erh?ht die Schlagz?higkeit erheblich, ein zu hoher Kautschukgehalt kann jedoch andere mechanische Eigenschaften wie Zugfestigkeit und Elastizit?tsmodul verringern.

ABS weist auch eine ausgezeichnete Kriechbest?ndigkeit auf. So zeigen beispielsweise ABS-Rohrproben, die bei Raumtemperatur 7,2 MPa ausgesetzt werden, selbst nach zweieinhalb Jahren nur vernachl?ssigbare Ma??nderungen. ABS ist zwar nicht als selbstschmierendes Material geeignet, aber seine gute Dimensionsstabilit?t macht es aufgrund seiner guten Verschlei?festigkeit für Lager mit mittlerer Belastung interessant.

Elektrische Eigenschaften

ABS-Harz bietet eine zuverl?ssige elektrische Isolierung über einen breiten Frequenzbereich mit minimalem Einfluss von Temperatur oder Feuchtigkeit. Seine elektrischen Eigenschaften sind in der folgenden Tabelle zusammengefasst.

Thermische Eigenschaften

Die W?rmeformbest?ndigkeitstemperatur (HDT) von ABS bei einer Belastung von 1,82 MPa liegt bei etwa 93°C, kann aber durch Glühen um 6-10°C ansteigen. Aufgrund seiner amorphen Struktur weist ABS ein stabiles Spannungs-Temperatur-Verhalten auf, wobei die HDT nur um 4-8°C ansteigt, wenn die Belastung auf 0,45 MPa sinkt. Hitzebest?ndige ABS-Typen k?nnen eine HDT von etwa 115 °C erreichen. Die Verspr?dungstemperatur von ABS liegt bei -7°C, aber es beh?lt seine betr?chtliche Festigkeit bei -40°C. ABS-Produkte werden in der Regel in einem Temperaturbereich von -40°C bis 100°C eingesetzt.

Der lineare W?rmeausdehnungskoeffizient von ABS liegt zwischen 6,4×10-?/°C und 11,0×10-?/°C, was unter den Thermoplasten relativ niedrig ist. Allerdings ist ABS im Vergleich zu anderen technischen Kunststoffen weniger w?rmebest?ndig, zersetzt sich bei 260 °C und setzt giftige flüchtige Verbindungen frei. Au?erdem ist es entflammbar und hat keine selbstverl?schenden Eigenschaften.

Chemische Eigenschaften

ABS-Harz weist eine gute chemische Best?ndigkeit auf, was vor allem auf seine Nitrilgruppen zurückzuführen ist, die es gegen verdünnte S?uren, Laugen und Salze best?ndig machen. Allerdings l?st es sich in Ketonen, Aldehyden, Estern und Chlorkohlenwasserstoffen auf. W?hrend ABS in den meisten Alkoholen wie Ethanol unl?slich ist, wird es in Methanol nach einigen Stunden weich. L?ngerer Kontakt mit Kohlenwasserstoff-L?sungsmitteln kann zum Aufquellen führen. Unter Belastung ist ABS anf?llig für Spannungsrisse durch Chemikalien wie Essigs?ure und Pflanzen?le. Tabelle 1-4 (Platzhalter: hier Tabelle zur Chemikalienbest?ndigkeit einfügen) beschreibt die Ver?nderungen der Masse und des Aussehens nach l?ngerem Kontakt mit verschiedenen Chemikalien.

Arten von modifizierten ABS-Harzen

Trotz seiner vielen Vorteile hat ABS als technischer Kunststoff seine Grenzen. Dazu geh?ren die unzureichende Festigkeit, die niedrige W?rmeformbest?ndigkeit, die geringe Witterungsbest?ndigkeit, die fehlenden selbstverl?schenden Eigenschaften und die Opazit?t. Um diese Probleme zu beheben, wurden mehrere modifizierte ABS-Varianten entwickelt, darunter verst?rktes ABS, flammhemmendes ABS, transparentes ABS, ASA, ACS und MBS-Harze.

Verst?rktes ABS

Durch die Zugabe von 20 - 40% (nach Masse) Glasfasern werden die Zugfestigkeit, die Biegefestigkeit und der Modul von ABS deutlich verbessert, w?hrend gleichzeitig die HDT erh?ht und der W?rmeausdehnungskoeffizient verringert wird, um die Dimensionsstabilit?t zu verbessern. Die Schlagz?higkeit nimmt jedoch mit h?herem Glasfasergehalt ab. Tabelle 2-1 (Platzhalter: Tabelle der Eigenschaften von verst?rktem ABS hier einfügen) fasst die Leistung von glasfaserverst?rktem ABS zusammen.

Flammenhemmendes ABS

ABS ist von Natur aus entflammbar, aber durch Zugabe von niedermolekularen organischen Flammschutzmitteln und Synergisten kann flammgeschütztes ABS hergestellt werden. Diese Variante ist ideal für elektronische und elektrische Anwendungen, die Flammbest?ndigkeit und gute mechanische Festigkeit erfordern, wie z. B. TV-Geh?use und Radome.

Durchsichtiges ABS

Standard-ABS ist undurchsichtig, aber transparentes ABS kann durch die Einbindung von Methylmethacrylat in die Acrylnitril-, Butadien- und Styrolkomponenten durch Pfropfcopolymerisation erreicht werden. Transparentes ABS bietet hohe Transparenz, ausgezeichnete L?sungsmittelbest?ndigkeit und hohe Schlagz?higkeit.

ASA-Harz

ASA-Harz (Acrylnitril-Styrol-Acrylat) ist ein tern?res Copolymer, das durch Aufpfropfen von Acrylnitril und Styrol auf Acrylkautschuk hergestellt wird. ASA ist auch als AAS-Harz bekannt und zeichnet sich durch seine Witterungsbest?ndigkeit, Schlagfestigkeit, thermische Stabilit?t und chemische Best?ndigkeit aus. Es wird h?ufig für Automobilkomponenten wie Karosserieteile, Kraftstofftanks, Kühlergrills und Rücklichtabdeckungen verwendet. Die Tabelle listet die Leistung von ASA-Harz auf.

ACS-Harz

ACS-Harz (Acrylnitril-chloriertes Polyethylen-Styrol) ist ein tern?res Copolymer, das durch Pfropfen von Acrylnitril und Styrol auf hydriertes Polyethylen hergestellt wird. Es bietet eine ausgezeichnete Witterungsbest?ndigkeit und Flammwidrigkeit. In der Tabelle sind die Leistungsmerkmale des ACS-Harzes im Einzelnen aufgeführt.

MBS-Harz

MBS-Harz (Methylmethacrylat-Butadien-Styrol) ist ein Pfropfcopolymer aus Methylmethacrylat, Butadien und Styrol. Ersetzt man Acrylnitril durch Methylmethacrylat, erh?lt man ein transparentes Material mit einer Lichtdurchl?ssigkeit von bis zu 90%. MBS weist eine gute Schlagz?higkeit und Z?higkeit bei -40 °C sowie eine gute Best?ndigkeit gegen anorganische S?uren, Laugen, Salze und ?le auf, ist jedoch weniger best?ndig gegen Ketone, aromatische Kohlenwasserstoffe, aliphatische Kohlenwasserstoffe und Chlorkohlenwasserstoffe. Die Tabelle fasst die Leistung des MBS-Harzes der Shanghai Pen Chemical Factory zusammen.

Verarbeitungseigenschaften und Technologie von ABS-Kunststoffen

Flie?eigenschaften

ABS-Harz hat eine Schmelzflussrate (MFR), die typischerweise zwischen 0,02 und 1 g/min (200°C, 5 kg) liegt, wobei einige Sorten au?erhalb dieses Bereichs liegen. Eine h?here MFR bedeutet eine bessere Flie?f?higkeit. ABS mit einer MFR unter 0,1 g/min ist für die Extrusion geeignet, w?hrend eine MFR über 0,1 g/min ideal für das Spritzgie?en ist. Als pseudoplastische Flüssigkeit weist ABS ein scherverdünnendes Verhalten auf, so dass die Viskosit?t über die Scherrate eingestellt werden kann. Für eine gleichbleibende Produktqualit?t sollten Sie mit Scherraten arbeiten, bei denen die Viskosit?t weniger empfindlich auf Schwankungen reagiert. ABS hat eine m??ige Schmelzviskosit?t - weniger flüssig als Polyamid, aber st?rker als Polycarbonat - und eine relativ schnelle Abkühl- und Erstarrungsgeschwindigkeit.

Thermische Eigenschaften

Als amorphes Polymer hat ABS keinen eindeutigen Schmelzpunkt mit einer Glasübergangstemperatur (Tg) von etwa 115 °C. Die Verarbeitungstemperaturen müssen über diesem Wert liegen, in der Regel unter 250 °C, um eine Zersetzung zu vermeiden, die bei über 260 °C eintritt und giftige flüchtige Stoffe freisetzt. Empfohlene Verarbeitungstemperaturen sind:

• Spritzgie?en: 160-230°C
• Extrusion: 160-195°C
• Blasformen: 200-240°C
• Tiefziehen: 140-180°C

Der Temperaturbereich zwischen der Flie?temperatur und der Zersetzungstemperatur bestimmt die Verarbeitungsfreundlichkeit. ABS l?sst sich aufgrund seiner relativ niedrigen Schmelztemperatur (160-190 °C) und seines breiten Verarbeitungsfensters leicht verarbeiten. Hohe Verarbeitungstemperaturen erfordern jedoch kürzere Verweilzeiten, um chemische Reaktionen zu vermeiden. Die Zugabe von W?rmestabilisatoren kann das Verarbeitungsfenster erweitern und die zul?ssigen Verweilzeiten verl?ngern. Aufgrund der schlechten thermischen Stabilit?t sollte die Verweilzeit minimiert und der Maschinenzylinder nach der Verarbeitung gereinigt werden.

Trocknungseigenschaften

Die polaren Cyanogruppen von ABS führen zu einer h?heren Wasseraufnahme (0,3%-0,8%, weniger als 1%) als bei Polystyrol, aber weniger als bei Polyamid. Vor der Verarbeitung ist eine Vortrocknung erforderlich, um den Feuchtigkeitsgehalt unter 0,1% zu senken. Die Trocknung erfolgt bei ca. 80°C für 2-4 Stunden, wobei Methoden wie Umlufttrocknung (70-80°C, 4+ Stunden) oder konventionelle Ofentrocknung (80-100°C, 2 Stunden, Granulatschichtdicke <50 mm) verwendet werden.

Spritzgie?en

ABS wird in der Regel mit Schrauben verarbeitet Spritzgie?en Maschinen mit einer eink?pfigen, ?quidistanten, graduellen Vollgewindeschnecke (Verh?ltnis L?nge/Durchmesser von 20, Kompressionsverh?ltnis von 2,0-2,5). Offene oder verl?ngerte Düsen sind selbstschlie?enden Düsen vorzuziehen, um eine Verringerung des Durchflusses oder eine Verf?rbung des Materials zu vermeiden.

Die Einspritztemperaturen variieren je nach Sorte:

• Allzweck- und hochschlagfeste Sorten200-260°C (niedriger, um Zersetzung zu verhindern)
• Hitzebest?ndige und plattierte Sorten220-270°C (h?her für eine bessere Formfüllung oder Beschichtungsleistung)
• Flammhemmende Typen: 190-240°C

H?here Einspritzdrücke sind für dünnwandige Teile, lange Flie?wege, kleine Anschnitte oder hitzebest?ndige/flammhemmende Sorten erforderlich, w?hrend für dickwandige Teile mit gro?en Anschnitten niedrigere Drücke ausreichen. Um innere Spannungen zu minimieren, sollte der Nachdruck nicht zu hoch sein. Die Formtemperaturen liegen in der Regel bei 50 °C, k?nnen aber auf 70 °C erh?ht werden, um die Oberfl?chengüte zu verbessern, Schwei?n?hte zu reduzieren und Verformungen zu minimieren. Die Tabelle listet die Verarbeitungsbedingungen für verschiedene ABS-Sorten auf.

Extrusion

Für die ABS-Extrusion werden allgemeine Einschneckenextruder (L?ngen-Durchmesser-Verh?ltnis von 18-20, Kompressionsverh?ltnis von 2,5-3,0) mit graduellen oder abrupten Kompressionsschnecken verwendet. Die moderate Viskosit?t der Schmelze macht eine Schneckenkühlung überflüssig. Bei der Extrusion werden ABS-Profile wie Rohre, St?be und Platten hergestellt. Die Tabelle listet detaillierte Verarbeitungsbedingungen für ABS-Rohre bzw. -Stangen auf.

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SogaWorks ist eine All-in-One-Online-Plattform für kundenspezifische mechanische Teile, die über 1.000 erstklassige Fabriken verbindet, um Start-ups und gro?e Unternehmen zu bedienen. Wir bieten flexible Fertigungsl?sungen für Rapid Prototyping, Kleinserientests und Gro?serienproduktion mit Dienstleistungen wie ABS CNC-Bearbeitung3D-Druck, Urethanguss und Spritzguss. Mit unserer KI-gesteuerten Angebotserstellung kann SogaWorks innerhalb von 5 Sekunden Angebote erstellen, die beste Kapazit?t ausw?hlen und jeden Schritt verfolgen. Das verkürzt die Lieferzeiten und steigert die Produktqualit?t.

ABS Plastic: Types, Properties and Processes最先出現(xiàn)在SogaWorks。